Saint Jerome

Born at Stridon, a town on the confines of Dalmatia and Pannonia, about the year

340-2; died at Bethlehem, 30 September, 420.

He went to Rome, probably about 360, where he was baptized, and became

interested in ecclesiastical matters. From Rome he went to Trier, famous for its

schools, and there began his theological studies. Later he went to Aquileia, and

towards 373 he set out on a journey to the East. He settled first in Antioch,

where he heard Apollinaris of Laodicea, one of the first exegetes of that time and

not yet separated from the Church. From 374-9 Jerome led an ascetical life in the

desert of Chalcis, south-west of Antioch. Ordained priest at Antioch, he went to

Constantinople (380-81), where a friendship sprang up between him and St.

Gregory Nazianzus. From 382 to August 385 he made another sojourn in Rome,

not far from Pope Damasus. When the latter died (11 December, 384) his

position became a very difficult one. His harsh criticisms had made him bitter

enemies, who tried to ruin him. After a few months he was compelled to leave

Rome. By way of Antioch and Alexandria he reached Bethlehem, in 386. He

settled there in a monastery near a convent founded by two Roman ladies, Paula

and Eustochium, who followed him to Palestine. Henceforth he led a life of

asceticism and study; but even then he was troubled by controversies which will

be mentioned later, one with Rufinus and the other with the Pelagians.

CHRONOLOGY

The literary activity of St. Jerome, although very prolific, may be summed up

under a few principal heads: works on the Bible; theological controversies;

historical works; various letters; translations. But perhaps the chronology of his

more important writings will enable us to follow more easily the development of

his studies.

A first period extends to his sojourn in Rome (382), a period of preparation. From

this period we have the translation of the homilies of Origen on Jeremias,

Ezechiel, and Isaias (379-81), and about the same time the translation of the

Chronicle of Eusebius; then the "Vita S. Pauli, prima eremitae" (374-379).

A second period extends from his sojourn in Rome to the beginning of the

translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew (382-390). During this period

the exegetical vocation of St. Jerome asserted itself under the influence of Pope

Damasus, and took definite shape when the opposition of the ecclesiastics of

Rome compelled the caustic Dalmatian to renounce ecclesiastical advancement

and retire to Bethlehem. In 384 we have the correction of the Latin version of the

Four Gospels; in 385, the Epistles of St. Paul; in 384, a first revision of the Latin

Psalms according to the accepted text of the Septuagint (Roman Psalter); in

384, the revision of the Latin version of the Book of Job, after the accepted

version of the Septuagint; between 386 and 391 a second revision of the Latin

Psalter, this time according to the text of the "Hexapla" of Origen (Gallican

Psalter, embodied in the Vulgate). It is doubtful whether he revised the entire

version of the Old Testament according to the Greek of the Septuagint. In

382-383 "Altercatio Luciferiani et Orthodoxi" and "De perpetua Virginitate B.

Mariae; adversus Helvidium". In 387-388, commentaries on the Epistles to

Philemon, to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, to Titus; and in 389-390, on

Ecclesiastes.

Between 390 and 405, St. Jerome gave all his attention to the translation of the

Old Testament according to the Hebrew, but this work alternated with many

others. Between 390-394 he translated the Books of Samuel and of Kings, Job,

Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Canticle of Canticles, Esdras, and Paralipomena. In

390 he translated the treatise "De Spiritu Sancto" of Didymus of Alexandria; in

389-90, he drew up his "Quaestiones hebraicae in Genesim" and "De

interpretatione nominum hebraicorum." In 391-92 he wrote the "Vita S.

Hilarionis", the "Vita Malchi, monachi captivi", and commentaries on Nahum,

Micheas, Sophonias, Aggeus, Habacuc. In 392-93, "De viris illustribus", and

"Adversus Jovinianum"; in 395, commentaries on Jonas and Abdias; in 398,

revision of the remainder of the Latin version of the New Testament, and about

that time commentaries on chapters xiii-xxiii of Isaias; in 398, an unfinished work

"Contra Joannem Hierosolymitanum"; in 401, "Apologeticum adversus Rufinum";

between 403-406, "Contra Vigilantium"; finally from 398 to 405, completion of the

version of the Old Testament according to the Hebrew.

In the last period of his life, from 405 to 420, St. Jerome took up the series of his

commentaries interrupted for seven years. In 406, he commented on Osee, Joel,

Amos, Zacharias, Malachias; in 408, on Daniel; from 408 to 410, on the

remainder of Isaias; from 410 to 415, on Ezechiel; from 415-420, on Jeremias.

From 401 to 410 date what is left of his sermons; treatises on St. Mark, homilies

on the Psalms, on various subjects, and on the Gospels; in 415, "Dialogi contra

Pelagianos".

CHARACTERISTICS OF ST. JEROME'S WORK

St. Jerome owes his place in the history of exegetical studies chiefly to his

revisions and translations of the Bible. Until about 391-2, he considered the

Septuagint translation as inspired. But the progress of his Hebraistic studies and

his intercourse with the rabbis made him give up that idea, and he recognized as

inspired the original text only. It was about this period that he undertook the

translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew. But he went too far in his

reaction against the ideas of his time, and is open to reproach for not having

sufficiently appreciated the Septuagint. This latter version was made from a much

older, and at times much purer, Hebrew text than the one in use at the end of the

fourth century. Hence the necessity of taking the Septuagint into consideration in

any attempt to restore the text of the Old Testament. With this exception we

must admit the excellence of the translation made by St. Jerome. His

commentaries represent a vast amount of work but of very unequal value. Very

often he worked exceedingly rapidly; besides, he considered a commentary a

work of compilation, and his chief care was to accumulate the interpretations of

his predecessors, rather than to pass judgment on them. The "Quaestiones

hebraicae in Genesim" is one of his best works. It is a philological inquiry

concerning the original text. It is to be regretted that he was unable to continue,

as had been his intention, a style of work entirely new at the time. Although he

often asserted his desire to avoid excessive allegory, his efforts in that respect

were far from successful, and in later years he was ashamed of some of his

earlier allegorical explanations. He himself says that he had recourse to the

allegorical meaning only when unable to discover the literal meaning. His

treatise, "De Interpretatione nominum hebraicorum", is but a collection of

mystical and symbolical meanings. Excepting the "Commenta rius in ep. ad

Galatas", which is one of his best, his explanations of the New Testament have

no great value. Among his commentaries on the Old Testament must be

mentioned those on Amos, Isaias, and Jeremias. There are some that are frankly

bad, for instance those on Zacharias, Osee, and Joel. To sum up, the Biblical

knowledge of St. Jerome makes him rank first among ancient exegetes. In the

first place, he was very careful as to the sources of his information. He required

of the exegete a very extensive knowledge of sacred and profane history, and

also of the linguistics and geography of Palestine. He never either categorically

acknowledged or rejected the deuterocanonical books as part of the Canon of

Scripture, and he repeatedly made use of them. On the inspiration, the existence

of a spiritual meaning, and the freedom of the Bible from error, he holds the

traditional doctrine. Possibly he has insisted more than others on the share

which belongs to the sacred writer in his collaboration in the inspired work. His

criticism is not without originality. The controversy with the Jews and with the

Pagans had long since called the attention of the Christians to certain difficulties

in the Bible. St. Jerome answers in various ways. Not to mention his answers to

this or that difficulty, he appeals above all to the principle, that the original text of

the Scriptures is the only one inspired and free from error. Therefore one must

determine if the text, in which the difficulties arise, has not been altered by the

copyist. Moreover, when the writers of the New Testament quoted the Old

Testament, they did so not according to the letter but according to the spirit.

There are many subtleties and even contradictions in the explanations Jerome

offers, but we must bear in mind his evident sincerity. He does not try to cloak

over his ignorance; he admits that there are many difficulties in the Bible; at

times he seems quite embarrassed. Finally, he proclaims a principle, which, if

recognized as legitimate, might serve to adjust the insufficiencies of his criticism.

He asserts that in the Bible there is no material error due to the ignorance or the

heedlessness of the sacred writer, but he adds: "It is usual for the sacred

historian to conform himself to the generally accepted opinion of the masses in

his time" (P.L., XXVI, 98; XXIV, 855). Among the historical works of St. Jerome

must be noted the translation and the continuation of the "Chronicon Eusebii

Caesariensis", as the continuation written by him, which extends from 325 to

378, served as a model for the annals of the chroniclers of the Middle Ages;

hence the defects in such works: dryness, superabundance of data of every

description, lack of proportion and of historical sense. The "Vita S. Pauli

Eremitae" is not a very reliable document. The "Vita Malchi, monachi" is a

eulogy of chastity woven through a number of legendary episodes. As to the

"Vita S. Hilarionis", it has suffered from contact with the preceding ones. It has

been asserted that the journeys of St. Hilarion are a plagiarism of some old tales

of travel. But these objections are altogether misplaced, as it is really a reliable

work. The treatise "De Viris illustribus" is a very excellent literary history. It was

written as an apologetic work to prove that the Church had produced learned

men. For the first three centuries Jerome depends to a great extent on Eusebius,

whose statements he borrows, often distorting them, owing to the rapidity with

which he worked. His accounts of the authors of the fourth century however are of

great value. The oratorical consist of about one hundred homilies or short

treatises, and in these the Solitary of Bethlehem appears in a new light. He is a

monk addressing monks, not without making very obvious allusions to

contemporary events. The orator is lengthy and apologizes for it. He displays a

wonderful knowledge of the versions and contents of the Bible. His allegory is

excessive at times, and his teaching on grace is Semipelagian. A censorious

spirit against authority, sympathy for the poor which reaches the point of hostility

against the rich, lack of good taste, inferiority of style, and misquotation, such

are the most glaring defects of these sermons. Evidently they are notes taken

down by his hearers, and it is a question whether they were reviewed by the

preacher. The correspondence of St. Jerome is one of the best known parts of

his literary output. It comprises about one hundred and twenty letters from him,

and several from his correspondents. Many of these letters were written with a

view to publication, and some of them the author even edited himself; hence they

show evidence of great care and skill in their composition, and in them St.

Jerome reveals himself a master of style. These letters, which had already met

with great success with his contemporaries, have been, with the "Confessions" of

St. Augustine, one of the works most appreciated by the humanists of the

Renaissance. Aside from their literary interest they have great historical value.

Relating to a period covering half a century they touch upon most varied

subjects; hence their division into letters dealing with theology, polemics,

criticism, conduct, and biography. In spite of their turgid diction they are full of

the man's personality. It is in this correspondence that the temperament of St.

Jerome is most clearly seen: his waywardness, his love of extremes, his

exceeding sensitiveness; how he was in turn exquisitely dainty and bitterly

satirical, unsparingly outspoken concerning others and equally frank about

himself. The theological writings of St. Jerome are mainly controversial works,

one might almost say composed for the occasion. He missed being a theologian,

by not applying himself in a consecutive and personal manner to doctrinal

questions. In his controversies he was simply the interpreter of the accepted

ecclesiastical doctrine. Compared with St. Augustine his inferiority in breadth

and originality of view is most evident. His "Dialogue" against the Luciferians

deals with a schismatic sect whose founder was Lucifer, Bishop of Cagliari in

Sardinia. The Luciferians refused to approve of the measure of clemency by

which the Church, since the Council of Alexandria, in 362, had allowed bishops,

who had adhered to Arianism, to continue to discharge their duties on condition

of professing the Nicene Creed. This rigorist sect had adherents almost

everywhere, and even in Rome it was very troublesome. Against it Jerome wrote

his "Dialogue", scathing in sarcasm, but not always accurate in doctrine,

particularly as to the Sacrament of Confirmation. The book "Adversus Helvidium"

belongs to about the same period. Helvidius held the two following tenets:

Mary bore children to Joseph after the virginal birth of Jesus Christ;

from a religious viewpoint, the married state is not inferior to celibacy.

Earnest entreaty decided Jerome to answer. In doing so he discusses the

various texts of the Gospel which, it was claimed, contained the objections to the

perpetual virginity of Mary. If he did not find positive answers on all points, his

work, nevertheless, holds a very creditable place in the history of Catholic

exegesis upon these questions. The relative dignity of virginity and marriage,

discussed in the book against Helvidius, was taken up again in the book

"Adversus Jovinianum" written about ten years later. Jerome recognizes the

legitimacy of marriage, but he uses concerning it certain disparaging expressions

which were criticized by contemporaries and for which he has given no

satisfactory explanation. Jovinian was more dangerous than Helvidius. Although

he did not exactly teach salvation by faith alone, and the uselessness of good

works, he made far too easy the road to salvation and slighted a life of

asceticism. Every one of these points St. Jerome took up. The "Apologetici

adversus Rufinum" dealt with the Origenistic controversies. St. Jerome was

involved in one of the most violent episodes of that struggle, which agitated the

Church from Origen's lifetime until the Fifth Ecumenical Council (553). The

question at issue was to determine if certain doctrines professed by Origen and

others taught by certain pagan followers of Origen could be accepted. In the

present case the doctrinal difficulties were embittered by personalities between

St. Jerome and his former friend, Rufinus. To understand St. Jerome's position

we must remember that the works of Origen were by far the most complete

exegetical collection then in existence, and the one most accessible to

students. Hence a very natural tendency to make use of them, and it is evident

that St. Jerome did so, as well as many others. But we must carefully

distinguish between writers who made use of Origen and those who adhered to

his doctrines. This distinction is particularly necessary with St. Jerome, whose

method of work was very rapid, and consisted in transcribing the interpretations

of former exegetes without passing criticism on them. Nevertheless, it is certain

that St. Jerome greatly praised and made use of Origen, that he even transcribed

some erroneous passages without due reservation. But it is also evident that he

never adhered thinkingly and systematically to the Origenistic doctrines. Under

these circumstances it came about that when Rufinus, who was a genuine

Origenist, called on him to justify his use of Origen, the explanations he gave

were not free from embarrassment. At this distance of time it would require a very

subtle and detailed study of the question to decide the real basis of the quarrel.

However that may be, Jerome may be accused of imprudence of language and

blamed for a too hasty method of work. With a temperament such as his, and

confident of his undoubted orthodoxy in the matter of Origenism, he must

naturally have been tempted to justify anything. This brought about a most bitter

controversy with his wily adversary, Rufinus. But on the whole Jerome's position

is by far the stronger of the two, even in the eyes of his contemporaries. It is

generally conceded that in this controversy Rufinus was to blame. It was he who

brought about the conflict in which he proved himself to be narrow-minded,

perplexed, ambitious, even timorous. St. Jerome, whose attitude is not always

above reproach, is far superior to him. Vigilantius, the Gascon priest against

whom Jerome wrote a treatise, quarrelled with ecclesiastical usages rather than

matters of doctrine. What he principally rejected was the monastic life and the

veneration of saints and of relics. In short, Helvidius, Jovinian, and Vigilantius

were the mouthpieces of a reaction against asceticism which had developed so

largely in the fourth century. Perhaps the influence of that same reaction is to be

seen in the doctrine of the monk Pelagius, who gave his name to the principal

heresy on grace: Pelagianism. On this subject Jerome wrote his "Dialogi contra

Pelagianos". Accurate as to the doctrine of original sin, the author is much less

so when he determines the part of God and of man in the act of justification. In

the main his ideas are Semipelagian: man merits first grace: a formula which

endangers the absolute freedom of the gift of grace. The book "De situ et

nominibus locorum hebraicorum" is a translation of the "Onomasticon" of

Eusebius, to which the translator has joined additions and corrections. The

translations of the "Homilies" of Origen vary in character according to the time in

which they were written. As time went on, Jerome became more expert in the art

of translating, and he outgrew the tendency to palliate, as he came across them,

certain errors of Origen. We must make special mention of the translation of the

homilies "In Canticum Canticorum", the Greek original of which has been lost.

St. Jerome's complete works can be found in P.L., XXII-XXX.

Louis Saltet

Transcribed by Sean Hyland

The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VIII

Nihil Obstat, October 1, 1910. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor

Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York

The Catholic Encyclopedia: NewAdvent.org